Introduction

This tutorial introduces use to the main functions of the MegaLMM R package.

We will use MegaLMM to do Genomic Prediction for a set of maize lines in a large multi-environmental trial. Multi-environment trials are used to evaluate candidate varieties under different environments to learn which varieties might be useful for particular locations. This is important because Gene-Environment Interactions are very common in plants, which means that the relative performances of varieties may change across different environments, so the same line won’t necessarily be best everywhere.

Gene-environment interactions are often thought of as reaction norms, where we plot the change in a line’s performance as a function of the environment. However, an equivalent model for gene-environment interactions is to think of the trait value in each environment as a separate trait, and model the correlation in trait values across environments. As reaction norms, gene-environment interactions are represented by lines with different slopes. As correlated traits, gene-environment interactions are represented by correlations in traits that are less than one.

In MegaLMM we model gene-environment interactions as correlated traits, because this takes advantage of MegaLMM’s ability to model the covariances among a large number of traits. We will use MegaLMM to estimate the additive genetic and non-additive genetic covariances among all trials, and then use these covariances to predict the genetic values of every line in every trial. This is particularly useful when multi-environmental trials are incomplete meaning that not every line is evaluated in every trial. Specifically, we will leverage the relative line performances in some trials and the covariances among trials to predict the line performances in trials where they were not observed. We will use cross-validation to evaluate the accuracy of these predictions, and compare them to predictions in each trial that we would have made treating each trial independently.

The data are based on data from the Genomes To Fields Initiative which is a large consortium growing maize hybrids across a large number of trials across North America, but have been anonymized and subsetted to a smaller set for demonstration.

Preliminaries

We will use the MegaLMM, rrBLUP, and ggplot2 packages.

rrBLUP and ggplot2 can be installed from CRAN if you do not have them already:

if(!require(rrBLUP)) { install.packages("rrBLUP"); library(rrBLUP) }
#> Loading required package: rrBLUP
#> Warning in library(package, lib.loc = lib.loc, character.only = TRUE,
#> logical.return = TRUE, : there is no package called 'rrBLUP'
#> Installing package into '/home/runner/work/_temp/Library'
#> (as 'lib' is unspecified)
if(!require(ggplot2)) { install.packages("ggplot2"); library(ggplot2) }
#> Loading required package: ggplot2

MegaLMM is installed from GitHub:

if(!require(devtools)) { install.packages("devtools"); library(devtools) }
#> Loading required package: devtools
#> Warning in library(package, lib.loc = lib.loc, character.only = TRUE,
#> logical.return = TRUE, : there is no package called 'devtools'
#> Installing package into '/home/runner/work/_temp/Library'
#> (as 'lib' is unspecified)
#> also installing the dependencies 'credentials', 'zip', 'gitcreds', 'ini', 'httpuv', 'xtable', 'fontawesome', 'sourcetools', 'later', 'promises', 'clipr', 'gert', 'gh', 'rstudioapi', 'shiny', 'htmlwidgets', 'xopen', 'brew', 'commonmark', 'usethis', 'miniUI', 'pkgbuild', 'profvis', 'rcmdcheck', 'remotes', 'roxygen2', 'rversions', 'urlchecker'
#> Loading required package: usethis
if(!require(MegaLMM)) { 
  devtools::install_github('deruncie/MegaLMM')
  library(MegaLMM) 
  }
#> Loading required package: MegaLMM

Load the data and format for MegaLMM

The data files for this tutorial are included with the MegaLMM package and can be accessed with the data() function:

Yield data are in the file Yield_trial_BLUPs and include 3,318 yield measurements from 502 lines and 19 environments.

data('yield_data',package='MegaLMM')
yield_data
#>         Line Population   Env         Yield
#> 1    Line001          1 Env01  7.663660e-02
#> 2    Line001          1 Env02  5.736228e-01
#> 3    Line001          1 Env03 -1.057396e-01
#> 4    Line001          1 Env04  4.053487e-01
#> 5    Line001          1 Env05 -9.638836e-02
#> 6    Line001          1 Env12  7.502145e-02
#> 7    Line002          1 Env01 -3.429877e-02
#> 8    Line002          1 Env02 -4.004347e-02
#> 9    Line002          1 Env03 -2.653557e-01
#> 10   Line002          1 Env04  1.136820e-01
#> 11   Line002          1 Env05 -3.726350e-03
#> 12   Line002          1 Env12 -3.714474e-01
#> 13   Line003          1 Env01  2.105977e-01
#> 14   Line003          1 Env02 -6.395920e-01
#> 15   Line003          1 Env03  3.995948e-01
#> 16   Line003          1 Env04  2.926501e-01
#> 17   Line003          1 Env05  1.146499e-01
#> 18   Line003          1 Env12 -2.370533e-01
#> 19   Line004          1 Env01 -7.522661e-01
#> 20   Line004          1 Env02 -1.431944e-01
#> 21   Line004          1 Env03 -1.200977e+00
#> 22   Line004          1 Env04 -4.363149e-01
#> 23   Line004          1 Env05 -2.494169e-01
#> 24   Line004          1 Env12 -7.852241e-01
#> 25   Line005          1 Env01  5.040685e-01
#> 26   Line005          1 Env02  1.487476e-01
#> 27   Line005          1 Env03  6.330452e-01
#> 28   Line005          1 Env04  6.561490e-01
#> 29   Line005          1 Env05  1.237169e-01
#> 30   Line005          1 Env12 -2.390269e-01
#> 31   Line006          1 Env01 -2.619325e-02
#> 32   Line006          1 Env02  1.682000e-01
#> 33   Line006          1 Env03  1.799732e-01
#> 34   Line006          1 Env04 -2.938856e-01
#> 35   Line006          1 Env05  2.111995e-02
#> 36   Line006          1 Env12  2.513783e-01
#> 37   Line007          1 Env01  6.059105e-01
#> 38   Line007          1 Env02  8.658490e-02
#> 39   Line007          1 Env03  3.821189e-01
#> 40   Line007          1 Env04  4.749081e-01
#> 41   Line007          1 Env05  1.062514e-01
#> 42   Line007          1 Env12 -2.105132e-01
#> 43   Line008          1 Env01  7.674815e-02
#> 44   Line008          1 Env02 -1.872101e-01
#> 45   Line008          1 Env03 -3.152836e-01
#> 46   Line008          1 Env04 -4.100128e-01
#> 47   Line008          1 Env05  9.233675e-02
#> 48   Line008          1 Env12 -2.581535e-01
#> 49   Line009          1 Env01  1.487860e-01
#> 50   Line009          1 Env02 -5.105435e-01
#> 51   Line009          1 Env03  3.582082e-01
#> 52   Line009          1 Env04 -7.643776e-02
#> 53   Line009          1 Env05  1.296953e-01
#> 54   Line009          1 Env12  1.624819e-01
#> 55   Line010          1 Env01  2.427229e-01
#> 56   Line010          1 Env02  6.540042e-02
#> 57   Line010          1 Env03  6.162406e-01
#> 58   Line010          1 Env04 -2.463628e-01
#> 59   Line010          1 Env05  9.485659e-02
#> 60   Line010          1 Env12 -7.857771e-01
#> 61   Line011          1 Env01 -5.387960e-02
#> 62   Line011          1 Env02 -1.654603e-01
#> 63   Line011          1 Env03 -5.442302e-01
#> 64   Line011          1 Env04 -2.303881e-01
#> 65   Line011          1 Env05 -2.921937e-02
#> 66   Line011          1 Env12  1.048671e-01
#> 67   Line012          1 Env01 -2.315558e-01
#> 68   Line012          1 Env02  3.777948e-02
#> 69   Line012          1 Env03 -2.529660e-02
#> 70   Line012          1 Env04 -5.408300e-01
#> 71   Line012          1 Env05  3.335723e-02
#> 72   Line012          1 Env12 -2.931048e-01
#> 73   Line013          1 Env01 -6.446561e-01
#> 74   Line013          1 Env02 -6.717251e-01
#> 75   Line013          1 Env03 -4.344309e-01
#> 76   Line013          1 Env04  2.185775e-01
#> 77   Line013          1 Env05 -1.013940e-01
#> 78   Line013          1 Env12 -6.828011e-01
#> 79   Line014          1 Env01 -3.126808e-01
#> 80   Line014          1 Env02  1.714737e-02
#> 81   Line014          1 Env03 -1.775868e-02
#> 82   Line014          1 Env04  1.652616e-01
#> 83   Line014          1 Env05  2.601497e-02
#> 84   Line014          1 Env12 -1.526309e-01
#> 85   Line015          1 Env01  4.100197e-01
#> 86   Line015          1 Env02 -2.147732e-01
#> 87   Line015          1 Env03  1.789289e-01
#> 88   Line015          1 Env04 -3.884937e-02
#> 89   Line015          1 Env05  7.092664e-02
#> 90   Line015          1 Env12  2.762909e-01
#> 91   Line016          1 Env01 -5.932312e-02
#> 92   Line016          1 Env02  5.224478e-01
#> 93   Line016          1 Env03  2.155236e-01
#> 94   Line016          1 Env04  4.689738e-01
#> 95   Line016          1 Env05  6.285470e-02
#> 96   Line016          1 Env12  2.774458e-01
#> 97   Line017          1 Env01 -2.878808e-01
#> 98   Line017          1 Env02 -7.946321e-01
#> 99   Line017          1 Env03 -2.054899e-01
#> 100  Line017          1 Env04  1.537212e-01
#> 101  Line017          1 Env05 -2.266715e-02
#> 102  Line017          1 Env12  6.754159e-01
#> 103  Line018          1 Env01 -3.223057e-02
#> 104  Line018          1 Env02  8.191515e-02
#> 105  Line018          1 Env03 -9.293057e-01
#> 106  Line018          1 Env04 -5.352318e-02
#> 107  Line018          1 Env05 -1.890778e-01
#> 108  Line018          1 Env12  2.315757e-01
#> 109  Line019          1 Env01  1.208312e-01
#> 110  Line019          1 Env02 -5.974399e-01
#> 111  Line019          1 Env03 -6.146869e-01
#> 112  Line019          1 Env04 -1.371508e-01
#> 113  Line019          1 Env05 -9.664683e-02
#> 114  Line019          1 Env12  5.763020e-01
#> 115  Line020          1 Env01 -6.742635e-01
#> 116  Line020          1 Env02  3.595038e-01
#> 117  Line020          1 Env03  2.996193e-01
#> 118  Line020          1 Env04 -4.208846e-02
#> 119  Line020          1 Env05 -4.244346e-02
#> 120  Line020          1 Env12  2.418972e-01
#> 121  Line021          1 Env01  9.942649e-02
#> 122  Line021          1 Env02  2.386349e-01
#> 123  Line021          1 Env03 -1.664182e-01
#> 124  Line021          1 Env04  8.595582e-02
#> 125  Line021          1 Env05 -1.387228e-01
#> 126  Line021          1 Env12  5.283409e-01
#> 127  Line022          1 Env01  2.403872e-01
#> 128  Line022          1 Env02 -2.705558e-01
#> 129  Line022          1 Env03  2.787914e-01
#> 130  Line022          1 Env04 -2.859170e-01
#> 131  Line022          1 Env05  1.834085e-02
#> 132  Line022          1 Env12 -7.379959e-01
#> 133  Line023          1 Env01 -3.542020e-02
#> 134  Line023          1 Env02 -4.687080e-01
#> 135  Line023          1 Env03  2.074113e-01
#> 136  Line023          1 Env04 -4.540796e-01
#> 137  Line023          1 Env05  3.697371e-02
#> 138  Line023          1 Env12 -6.936249e-02
#> 139  Line024          1 Env01 -9.153470e-02
#> 140  Line024          1 Env02  1.475635e-01
#> 141  Line024          1 Env03  3.102428e-01
#> 142  Line024          1 Env04 -1.042002e-01
#> 143  Line024          1 Env05  7.933363e-02
#> 144  Line024          1 Env12 -1.555026e-02
#> 145  Line025          1 Env01  4.431633e-01
#> 146  Line025          1 Env02  9.331619e-01
#> 147  Line025          1 Env03  7.725887e-01
#> 148  Line025          1 Env04  2.904366e-01
#> 149  Line025          1 Env05 -1.341809e-01
#> 150  Line025          1 Env12 -8.723935e-02
#> 151  Line026          1 Env01  2.471259e-01
#> 152  Line026          1 Env02  1.619154e-01
#> 153  Line026          1 Env03  8.276160e-01
#> 154  Line026          1 Env04 -7.328924e-02
#> 155  Line026          1 Env05  1.090861e-01
#> 156  Line026          1 Env12  4.949538e-01
#> 157  Line027          1 Env01 -1.251651e-02
#> 158  Line027          1 Env02  1.688593e-01
#> 159  Line027          1 Env03 -8.178109e-01
#> 160  Line027          1 Env04 -4.061314e-02
#> 161  Line027          1 Env05 -3.665523e-02
#> 162  Line027          1 Env12 -8.397086e-02
#> 163  Line028          1 Env01  9.571128e-02
#> 164  Line028          1 Env02 -4.433641e-01
#> 165  Line028          1 Env03 -3.501224e-02
#> 166  Line028          1 Env04  7.969534e-02
#> 167  Line028          1 Env05  6.996588e-02
#> 168  Line028          1 Env12 -1.205333e-01
#> 169  Line029          1 Env01 -8.560861e-02
#> 170  Line029          1 Env02 -2.906025e-01
#> 171  Line029          1 Env03  3.588538e-01
#> 172  Line029          1 Env04 -6.047660e-01
#> 173  Line029          1 Env05  1.793650e-01
#> 174  Line029          1 Env12  2.988244e-02
#> 175  Line030          1 Env01 -2.450239e-01
#> 176  Line030          1 Env02 -3.768555e-01
#> 177  Line030          1 Env03 -3.359933e-01
#> 178  Line030          1 Env04  1.122401e-01
#> 179  Line030          1 Env05 -6.430218e-02
#> 180  Line030          1 Env12  3.176897e-01
#> 181  Line031          1 Env01  4.327484e-01
#> 182  Line031          1 Env02  3.169358e-01
#> 183  Line031          1 Env03 -3.953674e-01
#> 184  Line031          1 Env04  7.013470e-02
#> 185  Line031          1 Env05 -2.842641e-01
#> 186  Line031          1 Env12  3.005638e-01
#> 187  Line032          1 Env01  2.022828e-02
#> 188  Line032          1 Env02  6.938523e-01
#> 189  Line032          1 Env03  1.962519e-01
#> 190  Line032          1 Env04  6.652834e-01
#> 191  Line032          1 Env05  2.513995e-01
#> 192  Line032          1 Env12  4.023299e-01
#> 193  Line033          1 Env01 -3.672013e-02
#> 194  Line033          1 Env02  2.193808e-01
#> 195  Line033          1 Env03  4.384160e-01
#> 196  Line033          1 Env04  1.855260e-01
#> 197  Line033          1 Env05 -3.754366e-02
#> 198  Line033          1 Env12  4.405533e-01
#> 199  Line034          1 Env01 -2.630628e-01
#> 200  Line034          1 Env02  1.068427e-01
#> 201  Line034          1 Env03  2.448363e-01
#> 202  Line034          1 Env04  2.300229e-01
#> 203  Line034          1 Env05 -1.819871e-01
#> 204  Line034          1 Env12  3.934037e-01
#> 205  Line035          1 Env01  4.568233e-01
#> 206  Line035          1 Env02  9.331069e-01
#> 207  Line035          1 Env03  7.616089e-01
#> 208  Line035          1 Env04  9.123068e-01
#> 209  Line035          1 Env05  2.698053e-01
#> 210  Line035          1 Env12 -2.611717e-01
#> 211  Line036          1 Env01 -3.122496e-02
#> 212  Line036          1 Env02 -1.471982e-02
#> 213  Line036          1 Env03 -6.590165e-01
#> 214  Line036          1 Env04  1.323698e-01
#> 215  Line036          1 Env05  1.406086e-01
#> 216  Line036          1 Env12 -5.751703e-01
#> 217  Line037          1 Env01  1.992879e-01
#> 218  Line037          1 Env02 -6.110940e-02
#> 219  Line037          1 Env03  3.360152e-02
#> 220  Line037          1 Env04  5.278882e-02
#> 221  Line037          1 Env05 -2.321549e-01
#> 222  Line037          1 Env12 -3.036594e-01
#> 223  Line038          1 Env01  2.596149e-03
#> 224  Line038          1 Env02 -3.585840e-01
#> 225  Line038          1 Env03 -6.083689e-01
#> 226  Line038          1 Env04 -4.153578e-01
#> 227  Line038          1 Env05  9.797793e-02
#> 228  Line038          1 Env12 -6.350388e-01
#> 229  Line039          1 Env01 -5.147031e-02
#> 230  Line039          1 Env02  1.711045e-01
#> 231  Line039          1 Env03 -2.609646e-01
#> 232  Line039          1 Env04  5.303502e-01
#> 233  Line039          1 Env05  1.869182e-01
#> 234  Line039          1 Env12  2.622916e-01
#> 235  Line040          1 Env01  4.230289e-01
#> 236  Line040          1 Env02 -9.530414e-02
#> 237  Line040          1 Env03  1.089190e+00
#> 238  Line040          1 Env04  3.964316e-01
#> 239  Line040          1 Env05  1.417472e-01
#> 240  Line040          1 Env12  8.100431e-01
#> 241  Line041          1 Env01 -1.191161e-02
#> 242  Line041          1 Env02 -6.758489e-02
#> 243  Line041          1 Env03  4.133780e-01
#> 244  Line041          1 Env04 -2.104227e-01
#> 245  Line041          1 Env05  3.342105e-02
#> 246  Line041          1 Env12 -4.969144e-01
#> 247  Line042          1 Env01 -5.194868e-01
#> 248  Line042          1 Env02 -5.224029e-01
#> 249  Line042          1 Env03 -1.198224e+00
#> 250  Line042          1 Env04 -5.853565e-01
#> 251  Line042          1 Env05 -3.110742e-01
#> 252  Line042          1 Env12  1.521808e-01
#> 253  Line043          1 Env01  8.223788e-01
#> 254  Line043          1 Env02  4.890592e-02
#> 255  Line043          1 Env03  1.063901e+00
#> 256  Line043          1 Env04  2.600288e-01
#> 257  Line043          1 Env05  1.920498e-01
#> 258  Line043          1 Env12  1.923032e-01
#> 259  Line044          1 Env01 -3.940269e-02
#> 260  Line044          1 Env02  3.604565e-01
#> 261  Line044          1 Env03  2.237813e-01
#> 262  Line044          1 Env04  4.369172e-01
#> 263  Line044          1 Env05 -1.426801e-01
#> 264  Line044          1 Env12  2.598595e-02
#> 265  Line045          1 Env01 -4.065801e-01
#> 266  Line045          1 Env02  1.870945e-01
#> 267  Line045          1 Env03 -6.283372e-02
#> 268  Line045          1 Env04 -9.191246e-02
#> 269  Line045          1 Env05 -6.948758e-02
#> 270  Line045          1 Env12  1.529945e-01
#> 271  Line046          1 Env01 -9.779920e-02
#> 272  Line046          1 Env02  7.071879e-03
#> 273  Line046          1 Env03 -1.360393e-01
#> 274  Line046          1 Env04  6.041856e-02
#> 275  Line046          1 Env05 -1.590995e-01
#> 276  Line046          1 Env12  3.241246e-01
#> 277  Line047          1 Env01  1.130650e-02
#> 278  Line047          1 Env02  3.298617e-01
#> 279  Line047          1 Env03 -8.371703e-01
#> 280  Line047          1 Env04  3.593239e-01
#> 281  Line047          1 Env05 -1.160482e-01
#> 282  Line047          1 Env12  3.455347e-01
#> 283  Line048          1 Env01 -8.341143e-02
#> 284  Line048          1 Env02  1.522246e-01
#> 285  Line048          1 Env03  4.302926e-01
#> 286  Line048          1 Env04 -6.841019e-01
#> 287  Line048          1 Env05  6.639779e-02
#> 288  Line048          1 Env12  4.091434e-01
#> 289  Line049          1 Env01 -1.690703e-01
#> 290  Line049          1 Env02 -6.894051e-01
#> 291  Line049          1 Env03 -6.326231e-01
#> 292  Line049          1 Env04 -5.262413e-01
#> 293  Line049          1 Env05  8.013351e-02
#> 294  Line049          1 Env12 -3.289724e-01
#> 295  Line050          1 Env01 -9.826602e-02
#> 296  Line050          1 Env02 -1.025849e-01
#> 297  Line050          1 Env03 -1.658634e-01
#> 298  Line050          1 Env04  3.945151e-01
#> 299  Line050          1 Env05  2.780061e-02
#> 300  Line050          1 Env12 -3.349608e-01
#> 301  Line051          1 Env01  6.295461e-02
#> 302  Line051          1 Env02 -6.491773e-01
#> 303  Line051          1 Env03  1.855970e-01
#> 304  Line051          1 Env04 -3.538478e-01
#> 305  Line051          1 Env05  1.955815e-01
#> 306  Line051          1 Env12 -1.784969e-01
#> 307  Line052          1 Env01  2.300118e-01
#> 308  Line052          1 Env02  1.092563e+00
#> 309  Line052          1 Env03  4.116734e-01
#> 310  Line052          1 Env04  3.119957e-01
#> 311  Line052          1 Env05 -1.271968e-01
#> 312  Line052          1 Env12  2.818212e-01
#> 313  Line053          1 Env01 -8.038103e-01
#> 314  Line053          1 Env02  6.456338e-01
#> 315  Line053          1 Env03 -4.408843e-01
#> 316  Line053          1 Env04  7.154657e-02
#> 317  Line053          1 Env05  8.454802e-02
#> 318  Line053          1 Env12 -2.140067e-01
#> 319  Line054          1 Env01  1.725241e-01
#> 320  Line054          1 Env02  3.199930e-01
#> 321  Line054          1 Env03  1.219829e+00
#> 322  Line054          1 Env04  4.887317e-01
#> 323  Line054          1 Env05  1.774079e-01
#> 324  Line054          1 Env12  3.193326e-01
#> 325  Line055          1 Env01  2.322210e-01
#> 326  Line055          1 Env02  4.712043e-02
#> 327  Line055          1 Env03  2.407725e-01
#> 328  Line055          1 Env04  2.621402e-01
#> 329  Line055          1 Env05 -2.113008e-01
#> 330  Line055          1 Env12  4.393686e-01
#> 331  Line056          1 Env01  4.857638e-01
#> 332  Line056          1 Env02  1.462029e+00
#> 333  Line056          1 Env03  7.668241e-01
#> 334  Line056          1 Env04  2.934110e-01
#> 335  Line056          1 Env05 -5.800810e-02
#> 336  Line056          1 Env12  5.281338e-01
#> 337  Line057          1 Env01 -5.305831e-01
#> 338  Line057          1 Env02 -5.212796e-01
#> 339  Line057          1 Env03  2.703278e-01
#> 340  Line057          1 Env04 -7.091032e-01
#> 341  Line057          1 Env05 -1.712980e-01
#> 342  Line057          1 Env12 -8.476426e-02
#> 343  Line058          1 Env01 -2.933543e-01
#> 344  Line058          1 Env02 -5.984592e-01
#> 345  Line058          1 Env03 -7.518660e-01
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#> 1912 Line276          2 Env13  3.220799e-01
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#> 1914 Line276          2 Env15  4.154912e-01
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#> 1937 Line280          2 Env14  2.057304e-01
#> 1938 Line280          2 Env15  3.527176e-01
#> 1939 Line280          2 Env17  2.111644e-01
#> 1940 Line281          2 Env01  3.741516e-01
#> 1941 Line281          2 Env03 -5.564553e-01
#> 1942 Line281          2 Env13 -7.196281e-02
#> 1943 Line281          2 Env14 -1.505942e-01
#> 1944 Line281          2 Env16 -2.343296e-02
#> 1945 Line281          2 Env17 -8.238709e-01
#> 1946 Line281          2 Env18 -6.832349e-02
#> 1947 Line281          2 Env19 -1.330408e-01
#> 1948 Line282          2 Env01  2.884403e-02
#> 1949 Line282          2 Env03  8.404547e-01
#> 1950 Line282          2 Env13  2.855110e-01
#> 1951 Line282          2 Env14  1.779381e-01
#> 1952 Line282          2 Env16 -3.978779e-01
#> 1953 Line282          2 Env17  6.885690e-01
#> 1954 Line282          2 Env18  5.461707e-01
#> 1955 Line282          2 Env19  6.957969e-02
#> 1956 Line283          2 Env01 -2.110549e-01
#> 1957 Line283          2 Env03 -4.042827e-01
#> 1958 Line283          2 Env13 -3.041514e-01
#> 1959 Line283          2 Env14 -1.407307e-01
#> 1960 Line283          2 Env17 -5.599724e-02
#> 1961 Line283          2 Env19  1.810569e-01
#> 1962 Line284          2 Env01  1.540181e-01
#> 1963 Line284          2 Env03 -7.438401e-01
#> 1964 Line284          2 Env14  1.358642e-01
#> 1965 Line284          2 Env15  1.210407e-01
#> 1966 Line284          2 Env16  5.501908e-02
#> 1967 Line284          2 Env17  2.257590e-01
#> 1968 Line284          2 Env19  3.844693e-01
#> 1969 Line285          2 Env01 -1.557966e-01
#> 1970 Line285          2 Env03 -3.538101e-01
#> 1971 Line285          2 Env14 -5.914302e-02
#> 1972 Line285          2 Env15  2.807380e-02
#> 1973 Line285          2 Env16 -4.821518e-02
#> 1974 Line285          2 Env17 -1.630672e-01
#> 1975 Line285          2 Env19  2.967811e-02
#> 1976 Line286          2 Env01 -8.839004e-02
#> 1977 Line286          2 Env03 -3.269897e-01
#> 1978 Line286          2 Env14 -2.314653e-01
#> 1979 Line286          2 Env15  2.153069e-01
#> 1980 Line286          2 Env16 -1.426278e-01
#> 1981 Line286          2 Env17  2.324586e-01
#> 1982 Line286          2 Env19 -4.081460e-02
#> 1983 Line287          2 Env01 -1.585809e-01
#> 1984 Line287          2 Env03 -4.795296e-01
#> 1985 Line287          2 Env14 -1.282425e-01
#> 1986 Line287          2 Env15 -8.785014e-02
#> 1987 Line287          2 Env16 -2.436988e-01
#> 1988 Line287          2 Env17 -4.188698e-01
#> 1989 Line287          2 Env19  1.121162e-01
#> 1990 Line288          2 Env01  9.137089e-02
#> 1991 Line288          2 Env03  4.654438e-02
#> 1992 Line288          2 Env14 -1.229609e-01
#> 1993 Line288          2 Env15  2.393062e-01
#> 1994 Line288          2 Env16 -2.760721e-01
#> 1995 Line288          2 Env17  1.948288e-01
#> 1996 Line288          2 Env19  4.355692e-02
#> 1997 Line289          2 Env01 -2.030283e-01
#> 1998 Line289          2 Env03 -4.651921e-03
#> 1999 Line289          2 Env14 -3.295913e-02
#> 2000 Line289          2 Env15 -1.357510e-01
#> 2001 Line289          2 Env16 -3.532462e-02
#> 2002 Line289          2 Env17 -1.207121e-01
#> 2003 Line289          2 Env19 -1.296600e-01
#> 2004 Line290          2 Env01 -2.129327e-01
#> 2005 Line290          2 Env03  3.033767e-01
#> 2006 Line290          2 Env14 -1.229639e-02
#> 2007 Line290          2 Env15 -3.404856e-01
#> 2008 Line290          2 Env16 -1.801440e-01
#> 2009 Line290          2 Env17 -2.415990e-01
#> 2010 Line290          2 Env19 -4.761081e-01
#> 2011 Line291          2 Env01  5.753756e-01
#> 2012 Line291          2 Env03  3.664237e-01
#> 2013 Line291          2 Env14  7.592714e-02
#> 2014 Line291          2 Env15 -3.816148e-01
#> 2015 Line291          2 Env16  2.583081e-01
#> 2016 Line291          2 Env17  4.008086e-01
#> 2017 Line291          2 Env19 -2.405178e-01
#> 2018 Line292          2 Env01 -2.864912e-02
#> 2019 Line292          2 Env03  5.350257e-01
#> 2020 Line292          2 Env14  2.119305e-01
#> 2021 Line292          2 Env15  1.263084e-01
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#> 2027 Line293          2 Env14 -1.841247e-01
#> 2028 Line293          2 Env15 -6.838158e-02
#> 2029 Line293          2 Env16  2.107163e-01
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#> 3100 Line466          2 Env10  3.649212e-01
#> 3101 Line466          2 Env11  3.286566e-01
#> 3102 Line466          2 Env18  1.696620e-01
#> 3103 Line467          2 Env07 -2.049983e-01
#> 3104 Line467          2 Env08 -2.067242e-01
#> 3105 Line467          2 Env09 -4.809010e-01
#> 3106 Line467          2 Env10  4.059622e-01
#> 3107 Line467          2 Env11  5.938833e-01
#> 3108 Line467          2 Env18 -1.662090e-02
#> 3109 Line468          2 Env07 -2.196019e-03
#> 3110 Line468          2 Env08 -1.652654e-01
#> 3111 Line468          2 Env09  8.438293e-02
#> 3112 Line468          2 Env10  1.861029e-01
#> 3113 Line468          2 Env11  4.379570e-01
#> 3114 Line468          2 Env18  2.866262e-01
#> 3115 Line469          2 Env07  3.256827e-01
#> 3116 Line469          2 Env08  2.682046e-01
#> 3117 Line469          2 Env09  1.509331e-01
#> 3118 Line469          2 Env10  1.163935e-01
#> 3119 Line469          2 Env11  1.950116e-01
#> 3120 Line469          2 Env18  7.982267e-02
#> 3121 Line470          2 Env07 -7.660226e-02
#> 3122 Line470          2 Env08 -2.184190e-02
#> 3123 Line470          2 Env09 -3.583300e-01
#> 3124 Line470          2 Env10 -5.917390e-01
#> 3125 Line470          2 Env11 -2.694019e-02
#> 3126 Line470          2 Env18 -2.676855e-01
#> 3127 Line471          2 Env07  9.886897e-02
#> 3128 Line471          2 Env08  5.148411e-02
#> 3129 Line471          2 Env09  1.041769e+00
#> 3130 Line471          2 Env10  4.991517e-01
#> 3131 Line471          2 Env11 -2.759165e-01
#> 3132 Line471          2 Env18 -4.006020e-02
#> 3133 Line472          2 Env07 -3.968355e-02
#> 3134 Line472          2 Env08 -5.892998e-01
#> 3135 Line472          2 Env09 -8.433605e-01
#> 3136 Line472          2 Env10  2.247841e-01
#> 3137 Line472          2 Env11 -8.860557e-02
#> 3138 Line472          2 Env18 -1.575884e-01
#> 3139 Line473          2 Env07  2.449058e-01
#> 3140 Line473          2 Env08 -2.679446e-01
#> 3141 Line473          2 Env09  4.910809e-01
#> 3142 Line473          2 Env10 -8.247019e-01
#> 3143 Line473          2 Env11 -1.341941e-01
#> 3144 Line473          2 Env18 -1.772371e-01
#> 3145 Line474          2 Env07 -1.631212e-01
#> 3146 Line474          2 Env08 -5.457100e-01
#> 3147 Line474          2 Env09 -7.936695e-01
#> 3148 Line474          2 Env10  1.800190e-01
#> 3149 Line474          2 Env11 -3.492748e-01
#> 3150 Line474          2 Env18 -4.816460e-01
#> 3151 Line475          2 Env07  3.858371e-01
#> 3152 Line475          2 Env08  1.351180e-02
#> 3153 Line475          2 Env09 -2.184656e-01
#> 3154 Line475          2 Env10  3.992395e-01
#> 3155 Line475          2 Env11 -1.765522e-01
#> 3156 Line475          2 Env18 -4.230817e-01
#> 3157 Line476          2 Env07 -6.354329e-02
#> 3158 Line476          2 Env08 -5.974567e-02
#> 3159 Line476          2 Env09  8.854801e-01
#> 3160 Line476          2 Env10  4.938334e-01
#> 3161 Line476          2 Env11  6.847668e-01
#> 3162 Line476          2 Env18  4.796469e-01
#> 3163 Line477          2 Env07 -2.480675e-01
#> 3164 Line477          2 Env08 -1.722255e-01
#> 3165 Line477          2 Env09 -6.256433e-01
#> 3166 Line477          2 Env10 -5.548491e-01
#> 3167 Line477          2 Env11 -1.382821e-01
#> 3168 Line477          2 Env18  3.172788e-01
#> 3169 Line478          2 Env07 -5.626158e-01
#> 3170 Line478          2 Env08  1.938583e-01
#> 3171 Line478          2 Env09  3.964626e-03
#> 3172 Line478          2 Env10 -5.849700e-01
#> 3173 Line478          2 Env11 -1.274783e-01
#> 3174 Line478          2 Env18 -5.038894e-01
#> 3175 Line479          2 Env07  6.964489e-01
#> 3176 Line479          2 Env08  7.010937e-02
#> 3177 Line479          2 Env09 -8.699923e-02
#> 3178 Line479          2 Env10  3.969676e-01
#> 3179 Line479          2 Env11 -5.048246e-02
#> 3180 Line479          2 Env18  2.397630e-01
#> 3181 Line480          2 Env07  4.771511e-01
#> 3182 Line480          2 Env08 -5.631871e-02
#> 3183 Line480          2 Env09  3.124875e-01
#> 3184 Line480          2 Env10  1.050427e+00
#> 3185 Line480          2 Env11  2.121208e-01
#> 3186 Line480          2 Env18  3.931429e-02
#> 3187 Line481          2 Env07 -2.360902e-01
#> 3188 Line481          2 Env08  2.474122e-01
#> 3189 Line481          2 Env09  4.789110e-01
#> 3190 Line481          2 Env10  1.073238e-01
#> 3191 Line481          2 Env11  3.659585e-01
#> 3192 Line481          2 Env18 -2.208459e-01
#> 3193 Line482          2 Env07 -6.746652e-01
#> 3194 Line482          2 Env08 -1.423498e-01
#> 3195 Line482          2 Env09 -5.491483e-01
#> 3196 Line482          2 Env10 -1.611212e-01
#> 3197 Line482          2 Env11  1.238833e-01
#> 3198 Line482          2 Env18 -3.415031e-01
#> 3199 Line483          2 Env07 -6.510996e-01
#> 3200 Line483          2 Env08  2.305794e-01
#> 3201 Line483          2 Env09 -4.535972e-01
#> 3202 Line483          2 Env10  1.430234e-01
#> 3203 Line483          2 Env11  1.920677e-01
#> 3204 Line483          2 Env18  1.908374e-01
#> 3205 Line484          2 Env07  1.750004e-01
#> 3206 Line484          2 Env08  1.281273e-01
#> 3207 Line484          2 Env09  1.541320e-01
#> 3208 Line484          2 Env10  3.580099e-01
#> 3209 Line484          2 Env11  1.230135e-02
#> 3210 Line484          2 Env18 -4.327763e-03
#> 3211 Line485          2 Env07  8.591130e-01
#> 3212 Line485          2 Env08  3.984696e-01
#> 3213 Line485          2 Env09  2.724308e-01
#> 3214 Line485          2 Env10  4.959955e-01
#> 3215 Line485          2 Env11  1.647880e-01
#> 3216 Line485          2 Env18  1.878780e-01
#> 3217 Line486          2 Env07  1.406309e-01
#> 3218 Line486          2 Env08 -3.299947e-01
#> 3219 Line486          2 Env09 -1.746237e-01
#> 3220 Line486          2 Env10  4.978671e-02
#> 3221 Line486          2 Env11 -1.524626e-01
#> 3222 Line486          2 Env18  2.150668e-01
#> 3223 Line487          2 Env07 -3.691694e-02
#> 3224 Line487          2 Env08 -2.587806e-01
#> 3225 Line487          2 Env09 -2.456653e-01
#> 3226 Line487          2 Env10 -4.860604e-01
#> 3227 Line487          2 Env11  6.688308e-02
#> 3228 Line487          2 Env18  4.277078e-01
#> 3229 Line488          2 Env07  4.389565e-01
#> 3230 Line488          2 Env08 -9.803447e-02
#> 3231 Line488          2 Env09 -3.120294e-01
#> 3232 Line488          2 Env10  4.592851e-01
#> 3233 Line488          2 Env11  6.431404e-01
#> 3234 Line488          2 Env18 -9.491138e-02
#> 3235 Line489          2 Env07 -1.522128e-01
#> 3236 Line489          2 Env08  3.822185e-01
#> 3237 Line489          2 Env09 -5.523805e-02
#> 3238 Line489          2 Env10 -1.571521e-01
#> 3239 Line489          2 Env11 -2.835575e-01
#> 3240 Line489          2 Env18 -6.877879e-03
#> 3241 Line490          2 Env07 -2.498936e-01
#> 3242 Line490          2 Env08  5.544483e-01
#> 3243 Line490          2 Env09 -2.316629e-01
#> 3244 Line490          2 Env10  5.589257e-01
#> 3245 Line490          2 Env11  1.454931e-01
#> 3246 Line490          2 Env18  8.089218e-01
#> 3247 Line491          2 Env07  3.095620e-01
#> 3248 Line491          2 Env08 -6.489997e-01
#> 3249 Line491          2 Env09  3.180641e-01
#> 3250 Line491          2 Env10  3.248508e-01
#> 3251 Line491          2 Env11 -4.742402e-01
#> 3252 Line491          2 Env18 -1.483494e-01
#> 3253 Line492          2 Env07  6.465929e-02
#> 3254 Line492          2 Env08  8.085793e-03
#> 3255 Line492          2 Env09  5.320146e-02
#> 3256 Line492          2 Env10 -6.958482e-01
#> 3257 Line492          2 Env11  3.284597e-01
#> 3258 Line492          2 Env18 -2.947430e-01
#> 3259 Line493          2 Env07  7.230805e-03
#> 3260 Line493          2 Env08 -8.563154e-02
#> 3261 Line493          2 Env09 -5.886486e-02
#> 3262 Line493          2 Env10 -1.122066e+00
#> 3263 Line493          2 Env11 -1.118962e-01
#> 3264 Line493          2 Env18 -3.695091e-01
#> 3265 Line494          2 Env07  2.353324e-01
#> 3266 Line494          2 Env08  1.755170e-01
#> 3267 Line494          2 Env09 -4.601296e-01
#> 3268 Line494          2 Env10  5.684251e-01
#> 3269 Line494          2 Env11 -2.017712e-01
#> 3270 Line494          2 Env18  4.211957e-01
#> 3271 Line495          2 Env07 -6.067863e-02
#> 3272 Line495          2 Env08 -5.220268e-01
#> 3273 Line495          2 Env09  1.253751e-01
#> 3274 Line495          2 Env10  3.137329e-01
#> 3275 Line495          2 Env11  6.684349e-02
#> 3276 Line495          2 Env18 -5.873161e-01
#> 3277 Line496          2 Env07  5.285133e-01
#> 3278 Line496          2 Env08  3.439581e-01
#> 3279 Line496          2 Env09  1.830050e-01
#> 3280 Line496          2 Env10  1.743509e-01
#> 3281 Line496          2 Env11  2.887337e-01
#> 3282 Line496          2 Env18  4.261468e-01
#> 3283 Line497          2 Env07 -3.236221e-01
#> 3284 Line497          2 Env08 -7.411147e-02
#> 3285 Line497          2 Env09 -9.793533e-02
#> 3286 Line497          2 Env10 -6.400513e-02
#> 3287 Line497          2 Env11 -2.123664e-01
#> 3288 Line497          2 Env18  1.393497e-01
#> 3289 Line498          2 Env07 -3.750728e-01
#> 3290 Line498          2 Env08  2.455763e-01
#> 3291 Line498          2 Env09  7.922759e-01
#> 3292 Line498          2 Env10  6.522879e-01
#> 3293 Line498          2 Env11 -4.426905e-02
#> 3294 Line498          2 Env18  4.403647e-02
#> 3295 Line499          2 Env07 -1.369626e-01
#> 3296 Line499          2 Env08 -3.156295e-02
#> 3297 Line499          2 Env09 -2.025579e-01
#> 3298 Line499          2 Env10  9.563605e-02
#> 3299 Line499          2 Env11 -1.196079e-01
#> 3300 Line499          2 Env18 -5.601190e-01
#> 3301 Line500          2 Env07 -1.382644e-01
#> 3302 Line500          2 Env08 -2.600126e-01
#> 3303 Line500          2 Env09 -1.408302e-01
#> 3304 Line500          2 Env10 -3.051666e-01
#> 3305 Line500          2 Env11 -2.826251e-01
#> 3306 Line500          2 Env18 -7.882763e-01
#> 3307 Line501          2 Env07 -1.180153e-01
#> 3308 Line501          2 Env08  1.766371e-01
#> 3309 Line501          2 Env09 -1.508217e-01
#> 3310 Line501          2 Env10 -4.457630e-01
#> 3311 Line501          2 Env11 -5.420383e-01
#> 3312 Line501          2 Env18  3.649028e-01
#> 3313 Line502          2 Env07  6.399184e-01
#> 3314 Line502          2 Env08  5.382367e-01
#> 3315 Line502          2 Env09 -1.978510e-01
#> 3316 Line502          2 Env10  1.147028e+00
#> 3317 Line502          2 Env11 -1.925140e-02
#> 3318 Line502          2 Env18  4.235418e-01

We can see the incidence matrix of lines by environments using the Image function in MegaLMM

Image(as.matrix(table(yield_data$Line,yield_data$Env))) + theme(legend.position = 'none') + xlab('Environment') + ylab('Line')

As you can see, no line is grown in every environment, and no environment includes every line. In fact, there seems to be largely 2 sets of lines, one grown in ~1/4 the environments and the other grown in a portion of the remaining environments. These two sets of lines are designated as different “populations” in the input data.

We can look at the number of observations by line and by environment:

hist(table(yield_data$Line),main = 'Environments per line',breaks=20)

hist(table(yield_data$Env),main = 'Lines per Environment',breaks=20)

The genetic data is available as an additive genomic relationship matrix calculated from GBS SNPs.

data('K',package='MegaLMM')

We can view the matrix also using Image

This shows we also have two groups of fairly related lines, with low relationships between groups.

Formatting data from MegaLMM

The yield data was provided in the tall format, meaning a single observation per row. In this format we would say we have 1 trait (Yield) with values measured in many environments.

But MegaLMM isn’t good for modeling GxE like this. Instead, we want to consider the yield in each environment as a separate trait, and each line is measured for 6-9 of these traits. So we need to construct a 502x19 trait matrix. The MegaLMM package includes a helper function to do this called create_data_matrices. This uses tidyr’s pivot_wider function to create the matrix, and the arguments are the same.

data_matrices = create_data_matrices(
  tall_data = yield_data, # your input tall data.frame,
  id_cols = c('Line','Population'), # vector giving the set of columns of tall_data used to identify each individual, and any covariates you'll want to use to model the trait data across individuals.
  names_from = 'Env', # vector giving the set of columns of tall_data used to identify each trait 
  values_from = 'Yield' # name of the trait data column
)

The output of create_data_matrices is a list with 3 elements. We’ll only use the first two.

The first is a new data.frame with one row per individual, and a single column giving the Line identifier. If you have covariates among lines (e.g. sex, population, etc), those variables should be included here too.

sample_data = data_matrices$data
sample_data
#>        Line Population
#> 1   Line001          1
#> 2   Line002          1
#> 3   Line003          1
#> 4   Line004          1
#> 5   Line005          1
#> 6   Line006          1
#> 7   Line007          1
#> 8   Line008          1
#> 9   Line009          1
#> 10  Line010          1
#> 11  Line011          1
#> 12  Line012          1
#> 13  Line013          1
#> 14  Line014          1
#> 15  Line015          1
#> 16  Line016          1
#> 17  Line017          1
#> 18  Line018          1
#> 19  Line019          1
#> 20  Line020          1
#> 21  Line021          1
#> 22  Line022          1
#> 23  Line023          1
#> 24  Line024          1
#> 25  Line025          1
#> 26  Line026          1
#> 27  Line027          1
#> 28  Line028          1
#> 29  Line029          1
#> 30  Line030          1
#> 31  Line031          1
#> 32  Line032          1
#> 33  Line033          1
#> 34  Line034          1
#> 35  Line035          1
#> 36  Line036          1
#> 37  Line037          1
#> 38  Line038          1
#> 39  Line039          1
#> 40  Line040          1
#> 41  Line041          1
#> 42  Line042          1
#> 43  Line043          1
#> 44  Line044          1
#> 45  Line045          1
#> 46  Line046          1
#> 47  Line047          1
#> 48  Line048          1
#> 49  Line049          1
#> 50  Line050          1
#> 51  Line051          1
#> 52  Line052          1
#> 53  Line053          1
#> 54  Line054          1
#> 55  Line055          1
#> 56  Line056          1
#> 57  Line057          1
#> 58  Line058          1
#> 59  Line059          1
#> 60  Line060          1
#> 61  Line061          1
#> 62  Line062          1
#> 63  Line063          1
#> 64  Line064          1
#> 65  Line065          1
#> 66  Line066          1
#> 67  Line067          1
#> 68  Line068          1
#> 69  Line069          1
#> 70  Line070          1
#> 71  Line071          1
#> 72  Line072          1
#> 73  Line073          1
#> 74  Line074          1
#> 75  Line075          1
#> 76  Line076          1
#> 77  Line077          1
#> 78  Line078          1
#> 79  Line079          1
#> 80  Line080          1
#> 81  Line081          1
#> 82  Line082          1
#> 83  Line083          1
#> 84  Line084          1
#> 85  Line085          1
#> 86  Line086          1
#> 87  Line087          1
#> 88  Line088          1
#> 89  Line089          1
#> 90  Line090          1
#> 91  Line091          1
#> 92  Line092          1
#> 93  Line093          1
#> 94  Line094          1
#> 95  Line095          1
#> 96  Line096          1
#> 97  Line097          1
#> 98  Line098          1
#> 99  Line099          1
#> 100 Line100          1
#> 101 Line101          1
#> 102 Line102          1
#> 103 Line103          1
#> 104 Line104          1
#> 105 Line105          1
#> 106 Line106          1
#> 107 Line107          1
#> 108 Line108          1
#> 109 Line109          1
#> 110 Line110          1
#> 111 Line111          1
#> 112 Line112          1
#> 113 Line113          1
#> 114 Line114          1
#> 115 Line115          1
#> 116 Line116          1
#> 117 Line117          1
#> 118 Line118          1
#> 119 Line119          1
#> 120 Line120          1
#> 121 Line121          1
#> 122 Line122          1
#> 123 Line123          1
#> 124 Line124          1
#> 125 Line125          1
#> 126 Line126          1
#> 127 Line127          1
#> 128 Line128          1
#> 129 Line129          1
#> 130 Line130          1
#> 131 Line131          1
#> 132 Line132          1
#> 133 Line133          1
#> 134 Line134          1
#> 135 Line135          1
#> 136 Line136          1
#> 137 Line137          1
#> 138 Line138          1
#> 139 Line139          1
#> 140 Line140          1
#> 141 Line141          1
#> 142 Line142          1
#> 143 Line143          1
#> 144 Line144          1
#> 145 Line145          1
#> 146 Line146          1
#> 147 Line147          1
#> 148 Line148          1
#> 149 Line149          1
#> 150 Line150          1
#> 151 Line151          1
#> 152 Line152          1
#> 153 Line153          1
#> 154 Line154          1
#> 155 Line155          1
#> 156 Line156          1
#> 157 Line157          1
#> 158 Line158          1
#> 159 Line159          1
#> 160 Line160          1
#> 161 Line161          1
#> 162 Line162          1
#> 163 Line163          1
#> 164 Line164          1
#> 165 Line165          1
#> 166 Line166          1
#> 167 Line167          1
#> 168 Line168          1
#> 169 Line169          1
#> 170 Line170          1
#> 171 Line171          1
#> 172 Line172          1
#> 173 Line173          1
#> 174 Line174          1
#> 175 Line175          1
#> 176 Line176          1
#> 177 Line177          1
#> 178 Line178          1
#> 179 Line179          1
#> 180 Line180          1
#> 181 Line181          1
#> 182 Line182          1
#> 183 Line183          1
#> 184 Line184          1
#> 185 Line185          1
#> 186 Line186          1
#> 187 Line187          1
#> 188 Line188          1
#> 189 Line189          1
#> 190 Line190          2
#> 191 Line191          2
#> 192 Line192          2
#> 193 Line193          2
#> 194 Line194          2
#> 195 Line195          2
#> 196 Line196          2
#> 197 Line197          2
#> 198 Line198          2
#> 199 Line199          2
#> 200 Line200          2
#> 201 Line201          2
#> 202 Line202          2
#> 203 Line203          2
#> 204 Line204          2
#> 205 Line205          2
#> 206 Line206          2
#> 207 Line207          2
#> 208 Line208          2
#> 209 Line209          2
#> 210 Line210          2
#> 211 Line211          2
#> 212 Line212          2
#> 213 Line213          2
#> 214 Line214          2
#> 215 Line215          2
#> 216 Line216          2
#> 217 Line217          2
#> 218 Line218          2
#> 219 Line219          2
#> 220 Line220          2
#> 221 Line221          2
#> 222 Line222          2
#> 223 Line223          2
#> 224 Line224          2
#> 225 Line225          2
#> 226 Line226          2
#> 227 Line227          2
#> 228 Line228          2
#> 229 Line229          2
#> 230 Line230          2
#> 231 Line231          2
#> 232 Line232          2
#> 233 Line233          2
#> 234 Line234          2
#> 235 Line235          2
#> 236 Line236          2
#> 237 Line237          2
#> 238 Line238          2
#> 239 Line239          2
#> 240 Line240          2
#> 241 Line241          2
#> 242 Line242          2
#> 243 Line243          2
#> 244 Line244          2
#> 245 Line245          2
#> 246 Line246          2
#> 247 Line247          2
#> 248 Line248          2
#> 249 Line249          2
#> 250 Line250          2
#> 251 Line251          2
#> 252 Line252          2
#> 253 Line253          2
#> 254 Line254          2
#> 255 Line255          2
#> 256 Line256          2
#> 257 Line257          2
#> 258 Line258          2
#> 259 Line259          2
#> 260 Line260          2
#> 261 Line261          2
#> 262 Line262          2
#> 263 Line263          2
#> 264 Line264          2
#> 265 Line265          2
#> 266 Line266          2
#> 267 Line267          2
#> 268 Line268          2
#> 269 Line269          2
#> 270 Line270          2
#> 271 Line271          2
#> 272 Line272          2
#> 273 Line273          2
#> 274 Line274          2
#> 275 Line275          2
#> 276 Line276          2
#> 277 Line277          2
#> 278 Line278          2
#> 279 Line279          2
#> 280 Line280          2
#> 281 Line281          2
#> 282 Line282          2
#> 283 Line283          2
#> 284 Line284          2
#> 285 Line285          2
#> 286 Line286          2
#> 287 Line287          2
#> 288 Line288          2
#> 289 Line289          2
#> 290 Line290          2
#> 291 Line291          2
#> 292 Line292          2
#> 293 Line293          2
#> 294 Line294          2
#> 295 Line295          2
#> 296 Line296          2
#> 297 Line297          2
#> 298 Line298          2
#> 299 Line299          2
#> 300 Line300          2
#> 301 Line301          2
#> 302 Line302          2
#> 303 Line303          2
#> 304 Line304          2
#> 305 Line305          2
#> 306 Line306          2
#> 307 Line307          2
#> 308 Line308          2
#> 309 Line309          2
#> 310 Line310          2
#> 311 Line311          2
#> 312 Line312          2
#> 313 Line313          2
#> 314 Line314          2
#> 315 Line315          2
#> 316 Line316          2
#> 317 Line317          2
#> 318 Line318          2
#> 319 Line319          2
#> 320 Line320          2
#> 321 Line321          2
#> 322 Line322          2
#> 323 Line323          2
#> 324 Line324          2
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The second is the nxp trait matrix. The rows of the trait matrix are aligned with the rows of the individual identifier data.frame. We can extract these for use in MegaLMM:

Y = data_matrices$Y
head(Y)[,1:5]
#>               Env01       Env02      Env03      Env04       Env05
#> Line001  0.07663660  0.57362277 -0.1057396  0.4053487 -0.09638836
#> Line002 -0.03429877 -0.04004347 -0.2653557  0.1136820 -0.00372635
#> Line003  0.21059771 -0.63959202  0.3995948  0.2926501  0.11464992
#> Line004 -0.75226609 -0.14319441 -1.2009773 -0.4363149 -0.24941693
#> Line005  0.50406848  0.14874755  0.6330452  0.6561490  0.12371692
#> Line006 -0.02619325  0.16820004  0.1799732 -0.2938856  0.02111995

One check we need to do is ensure all our individuals in our data are represented in the genomic relationship matrix:

all(rownames(K) %in% sample_data$Line)
#> [1] TRUE
K = K[sample_data$Line,sample_data$Line]

Set up Cross Validation

The goal of genomic prediction is to accurately predict the genetic values of individuals that are not observed in a particular environment. The standard way to estimate this accuracy is to mask a portion of the lines in the input data, use a model to predict these masked values, and then measure the correlation between the predicted values and the original data. In this tutorial we will do only 1 round of a k-fold cross-validation. Generally you would repeat this with other training / testing partition.

Because we are evaluating the accuracy for incomplete multi-environment trial prediction, we will mask different set of individuals in each environment, so each individual maintains input data in at least some individuals.

Because the individuals are stratified between two populations, we will ensure all testing individuals come from the same population. The masking algorithm will be:

  1. For each environment, decide which population is best represented
  2. For the observed individuals in that population, divide them into k-folds
  3. Create a matrix with the testing sets (fold_ID) for each observation

Not not worry about understanding this code! The call to set.seed() at the beginning makes it repeatable.

set.seed(1)
k_fold = 5 # we will hold out 1/5 = 20% of the observations from each environment
fold_ID_matrix = matrix(NA,nrow = nrow(Y),ncol = ncol(Y),dimnames = dimnames(Y))
for(i in 1:ncol(fold_ID_matrix)) {
  observed_lines = sample_data[!is.na(Y[,i]),]
  pop = names(sort(table(observed_lines$Population),decreasing=T))[1]
  observed_lines = subset(observed_lines,Population == pop)
  n_lines = nrow(observed_lines)
  observed_lines$fold = sample(rep(1:k_fold,(n_lines/k_fold)+1))[1:n_lines]
  fold_ID_matrix[match(observed_lines$Line,rownames(fold_ID_matrix)),i] = observed_lines$fold
}

Now that we have divided the observed data into folds, we can chose to mask fold==1 to create our training data, and extract the corresponding values as our testing data

fold_ID = 1
Y_train = Y_testing = Y
Y_train[fold_ID_matrix == fold_ID] = NA
Y_testing[fold_ID_matrix != fold_ID | is.na(fold_ID_matrix)] = NA

Run univariate GBLUP as reference

To evaluate whether the multi-trait prediction from MegaLMM is useful, we’ll run normal univariate genomic prediction using the GBLUP model using the rrBLUP package.

library(rrBLUP)
rrBLUP_predictions = matrix(NA,nrow(Y),ncol(Y),dimnames = dimnames(Y))
for(i in 1:ncol(Y)) {
  X = model.matrix(~Population,sample_data) # we will include Population as a covariate if it is variable among the individuals for this environment
  if(var(X[!is.na(Y_train[,i]),2]) == 0) X = X[,-2]
  rrBLUP_predictions[,i] = mixed.solve(y = Y_train[,i],
                                       X = X,
                                       K = K)$u
}

Here are the correlations between the predictions and the testing data:

diag(cor(Y_testing,rrBLUP_predictions,use='p'))
#>        Env01        Env02        Env03        Env04        Env05        Env12 
#>  0.278425958  0.187881694  0.625000316  0.389125876 -0.033478375  0.029312407 
#>        Env14        Env16        Env17        Env15        Env06        Env13 
#> -0.109251579  0.339391947  0.334737933  0.373848343 -0.272951670  0.111330746 
#>        Env18        Env19        Env07        Env08        Env09        Env10 
#>  0.426321031  0.002766824  0.309384501  0.349614409 -0.097410915  0.104172216 
#>        Env11 
#> -0.071876574

Run MegaLMM

Now, we’ll move to MegaLMM and fit a multivariate GBLUP model to all trials at once.

First, I’ll review the MegaLMM model, and then describe the implementation and usage of the R package.

Background

The MegaLMM model

MegaLMM implements multivariate linear mixed models of the form:

Y = X*B + Z*U + E

where Y is a n x t matrix of observations for n individuals and t traits, X is a design matrix for b fixed effects (including an intercept), Z is a design matrix for the random effects, and E is a n x t matrix of residual errors. The random effects are U are independent of the residuals, but columns of U matrix can be correlated, and each column vector marginally follows a multivariate normal distribution with a known covariance matrix K.

MvLMMs like this are notoriously difficult to fit. We address this by re-paramterizing the MvLMM as a mixed effect factor model:

Y = F*Lambda + Y_R
Y_R = X*B_R + Z*U_R + E_R
F = X*B_F + Z*U_F + E_F

where F is a n x k matrix of latent factor traits and Lambda is a k x t matrix of factor loadings. This is the model actually fit by MegaLMM. Basically, we break Y which is a set of t correlated traits into two sets of uncorrelated traits: Y_R and F. These are sets of t and K traits all of which are independently related to the fixed and random effects. All covariances within and among these sets of traits are captured by Lambda. Because of this, we can treat each of the columns of Y_R or F independently and specific a LMM for each of them. Generally, we use the same X, Z and K for all these traits. However in MegaLMM we allow some additional flexibility:

  • The fixed effect design matrix X is split into two parts: X_1 and X_2. X_1 are true fixed effects meaning the corresponding coefficients (B_1) are given flat priors. Because of this, we can’t allow F to depend on X_1, so this is only part of the model for Y_r. X_2 are regularized effects, so the corresponding coefficients are given an informative prior (e.g. BayesC). We allow both Y_R and F to depend on X_2, and potentially on different subsets of X_2: X_2F and X_2R, with corresponding coefficient matrices B_2F and B_2R. We do not make use of these matrices in this tutorial. The full models thus are: Y_R = X_1*B_1 + X_2R*B_2R + Z*U_R + E_R and F = X_2F*B_2F + Z*U_F + E_F.
  • While the same model structure applies to all columns of Y_R, because of missing values not all columns of X_1 may be variable for a particular trait. Therefore we drop columns of X_1 as needed and assign the coefficients to 0.
  • While I only wrote a single random effect above, MegaLMM does allow you to specific multiple independent random effects with different covariance matrices. However the memory and time complexities increase exponentially with more random effects. And, we cannot account for correlations among U_i and U_j.

Taking a single column of Y_R, the LMM is:

\[ y_r = X\times b_r + Z\times u_r + e_r \\ u_r \sim N(0,\sigma^2*h^2*K) \\ e_r \sim N(0,\sigma^2*(1-h^2)*I) \]

The model for each column of F is similar. This differs from most Bayesian LMMs in the parameterization of the variance components, but has some conceptual and algorithmic advantages. For priors, we use an inverse gamma prior for \(\sigma^2\) and a discrete prior on \(h^2\). Specification of the priors is described below.

The unique aspects of MegaLMM relative to other factor models are:

  1. The residuals of Y after accounting for the factors are not assumed to be iid, but are modeled with independent (across traits) LMMs accounting for both fixed and random effects.
  2. The factors themselves are also not assumed to be iid, but are modeled with the same LMMs. This highlights the parallel belief that these latent factors represent traits that we just didn’t measure directly.
  3. Each factor is shared by all modeled sources of variation (fixed effects, random effects and residuals), rather than being unique to a particular source.
  4. The factor loadings are strongly regularized so ensure that estimation is efficient. We accomplish this by ordering the factors from most-to-least important using a prior similar to that proposed by Bhattarchya and Dunson (2011)
Model formula

We use R’s formula syntax to construct the design matrices X and Z. In default usage, we specific a single formula and assume it applies to all columns of both Y_R and F, except the fixed effects do not apply to F.

Random effects

The random effect syntax in a formula is (a|X). This specifies a variance for each level of a (e.g. environment) for the location effects for each level of X (e.g. genotype, i.e. variance among genotypes in each environment). In lme4 syntax, there would additionally be covariances between the levels of a within each level of X. However we cannot model these covariances in MegaLMM, so this syntax makes independent variances for each level of a. Note, however, that each level of a introduces a new variance into the model, which exponentially increases the memory requirements! It is much better, if possible, to introduce each level of a as a separate trait!

Random effects have two parts: location effects which are the values for each level (e.g. breeding values for each individual) and variances which are the population variances of the location effects. We model the location effects as following a multivariate normal distribution with covariance equal to a known covariance matrix (K) times a variance proportion (\(h^2\)) times a phenotypic variance (\(\sigma^2\)). This differs slightly from typical parameterizations of random effects, which uses a separate variance for each random effect. In MegaLMM we instead model the proportion that each random effect contributes to the total, so all \(h^2_i\) values sum to 1, and use a discrete prior over the interval [0,1] for this parameter. This gives you a lot of flexibility for specifying prior distributions.

Factors

In most factor models the number of factors K is a critical parameter, and models with different numbers of parameters (either larger or smaller than optimal) may give very different answers. This is generally not the case in MegaLMM. In MegaLMM we use a prior to order and regularize the importance of the factors, enforcing that high-order factors explain less and less of the overall variation. Therefore the highest-order factors are generally extremely unimportant, and adding a few more or fewer of these unimportant factors won’t change the influence of the first factors. It is important to set K large enough to capture most of the covariation in Y, but once it’s large enough, additional values will not likely affect the model much.

A related note, though, is that the precise ordering of the factors is not well learned by the MCMC algorithm, and so inferences that rely on this should be treated with extreme caution. The rate of decay of factor importance is highly sensitive to the prior, and factor ordering does not mix well. Routines are described below to help the convergence of factor ordering to a useful value, but that is all we can do. This also means that the precise values of individual factor loadings may drift during the MCMC as factor orderings change slowly. This would greatly impact the inference on factor identities, but is not very important if the goal is prediction of U or Y.

Missing data

In a Bayesian model, we can treat missing data as additional parameters that need to be learned, so imputation of missing data happens naturally. However, if we construct the model correctly, some missing data points are not needed for the inference of any other parameters, and so can be simply predicted from the posterior values of other parameters. The more missing values we can treat this way the better, because conditioning on imputed values in MCMC greatly reduces the mixing rate of the chain.

In MegaLMM, if we can identify groups of traits that share missing values across a group of individuals (rows), we can declare that this block of values to be only predicted, not imputed. There is a tradeoff here in that the more groups of traits are specified, the greater the memory overhead of MegaLMM. But the improvement in MCMC mixing can be great.

MCMC and Posterior samples

MegaLMM uses a Gibbs sampler to draw samples from posterior of all unknown parameters. There are a lot of parameters in the MegaLMM model, and not all of them may be of interest to a user. You can choose which specific parameters should be tracked as described below. Additionally, you may be interested in a function of several parameters, and there is a function to calculate these values on each iteration as well. Finally, the sets of posterior samples can themselves be very large. If you’re tracking large matrices of predicted values for thousands of traits these posterior samples can take of Gbs of memory. Therefore MegaLMM has a way to store the posterior samples as a database on the disk, only holding small chunks of a chain in memory at a time.

Running MegaLMM

Set control parameters

The first function for MegaLMM sets several parameters of the model. Only a few are noted here. See the help page for more control parameters. The output is a list that will be passed to the main model construction function below.

run_parameters = MegaLMM_control(
  h2_divisions = 20, 
    # Each variance component is allowed to explain between 0% and 100% of the
      # total variation. How many segments should the range [0,100) be divided 
      # into for each random effect?
  burn = 0,  
    # number of burn in samples before saving posterior samples. I set this to 
      # zero and instead run the chain in small chunks, doing the burning manually, a
      # s described below.
  thin = 2,
    # during sampling, we'll save every 2nd sample to the posterior database.
  K = 15 # number of factors. With 19 traits, this is likely way higher than needed.
)
Create the model object

The function setup_model_MegaLMM parses the model formulas, links the GRM to the random effects, and creates an object to store all components of the model.

MegaLMM_state = setup_model_MegaLMM(
  Y = Y_train,  
    # The n x p trait matrix
  formula = ~ Population + (1|Line),  
    # This is syntax like lme4 for mixed effect models. 
      # We specify a fixed effect of population and a random effect for genotype (Line)
  data = sample_data,         
    # the data.frame with information for constructing the model matrices
  relmat = list(Line = K), 
    # A list of covariance matrices to link to the random effects in formula.
      # each grouping variable in formula can be linked to a covariance matrix.
      # If so, every level of the grouping variable must be in the rownames of K.
      # additional rows of K not present in data will still be predicted 
        # (and therefore will use memory and computational time!)
  run_parameters=run_parameters,
    # This list of control parameters created above
  run_ID = sprintf('MegaLMM_fold_%02d',fold_ID)
    # A run identifier. The function will create a folder with this name 
      # and store lots of useful data inside it
)
#> Warning: as(<matrix>, "lgTMatrix") is deprecated since Matrix 1.5-0; do
#> as(as(as(., "lMatrix"), "generalMatrix"), "TsparseMatrix") instead

The output is the variable MegaLMM_state which is an object of class MegaLMM_state including the following slots:

  • current_state: a list with elements holding the current values for all model parameters. Each parameter is stored as a 2d matrix. Variable names correspond as closely as possible to those described in the manuscript: Runcie et al 2020.
  • Posterior: a list with elements 3d or 2d arrays holding posterior samples (or posterior means) of specified model parameters. By default, samples of all parameters are stored. However these matrices can be large if data is large, so parameters can be dropped from this list by removing their names from the lists MegaLMM_state$Posterior$posteriorSample_params and MegaLMM_state$Posterior$posteriorMean_params.
  • run_ID: The current state of the chain plus Posterior samples and any diagnostic plots are automatically saved in a folder with this name during the run.

Before we can run the model, we have to do a few more steps

Set priors

We need to set priors for the variance components (\(\sigma^2\) and \(h^2\) for Y_R and F, and for the parameters of the factor loadings Lambda.

For Lambda, we have several types of priors as described in the MegaLMM papers. In this tutorial we will use the horseshoe prior from the Genome Biology paper:

Lambda_prior = list(
    sampler = sample_Lambda_prec_horseshoe, 
      # function that implements the horseshoe-based Lambda prior 
          # described in Runcie et al 2020. 
          #See code to see requirements for this function.
      # other options are:
          # ?sample_Lambda_prec_ARD,
          # ?sample_Lambda_prec_BayesC
    prop_0 = 0.1,    
      # prior guess at the number of non-zero loadings in the first and most important factor
    delta = list(shape = 3, scale = 1),    
      # parameters of the gamma distribution giving the expected change 
          # in proportion of non-zero loadings in each consecutive factor
    delta_iterations_factor = 100   
      # parameter that affects mixing of the MCMC sampler. This value is generally fine.
  )

For the remaining priors we use MegaLMM_priors

priors = MegaLMM_priors(
  tot_Y_var = list(V = 0.5,   nu = 5),      
    # Prior variance of trait residuals after accounting for fixed effects and factors
      # See MCMCglmm for meaning of V and nu
  tot_F_var = list(V = 18/20, nu = 20),     
    # Prior variance of factor traits. This is included to improve MCMC mixing, 
      # but can be turned off by setting nu very large
  h2_priors_resids_fun = function(h2s,n)  1,  
    # Function that returns the prior density for any value of the h2s vector 
        # (ie the vector of random effect proportional variances across all random effects. 
        # 1 means constant prior. 
        # n is the number of h2 divisions above (here=20)
        # 1-n*sum(h2s)/n linearly interpolates between 1 and 0, 
            # giving more weight to lower values
  h2_priors_factors_fun = function(h2s,n) 1, 
    # See above. 
        # sum(h2s) linearly interpolates between 0 and 1,
            # giving more weight to higher values
        # Another choice is one that gives 50% weight to h2==0: ifelse(h2s == 0,n,n/(n-1))
  Lambda_prior = Lambda_prior
    # from above
)

We then assign them to the MegaLMM_state object:

MegaLMM_state = set_priors_MegaLMM(MegaLMM_state,priors)
Deal with the missing data

As described above, if missing values can be grouped into line:environment sets that are 100% missing, these sets can be dropped from the model and only predicted from the posterior of other parameters. The following code attempts to find an optimal partitioning of values to maximize the number of dropped NA values in the smallest number of groups

maps = make_Missing_data_map(MegaLMM_state,max_NA_groups = ncol(Y)+1,verbose=F)
maps$map_results
#>    map N_groups max_group_size total_kept_NAs
#> 1    1        1            502           6797
#> 2    2        3            327           3115
#> 3    3        4            312           2560
#> 4    4        5            296           2018
#> 5    5        6            296           1437
#> 6    6        7            296           1143
#> 7    7        8            296            869
#> 8    8        9            296            677
#> 9    9       10            296            611
#> 10  10       11            296            561
#> 11  11       12            296            525
#> 12  12       13            287            382
#> 13  13       14            287            348
#> 14  14       15            287            281
#> 15  15       16            287            215
#> 16  16       17            287            155
#> 17  17       18            287            101
#> 18  18       19            287             48
#> 19  19       20            287              0

Using the 15th map above might be a good option:

MegaLMM_state = set_Missing_data_map(MegaLMM_state,maps$Missing_data_map_list[[15]])
Initialize the model object

Next, we create random starting values for all parameters:

MegaLMM_state = initialize_variables_MegaLMM(MegaLMM_state)
#> [1] "initializing Lambda_prec horseshoe"
#> [1] "initializing B_prec horseshoe"

Initialize parameters and posterior database

Now, we need to calculate some matrices that MegaLMM will use repeatedly during the Gibbs sampler. These calculations can take quite a bit of time for large models, particular when there are a lot of individuals, more than 1 random effect, and many groups of traits from the missing data map.

Memory usage

The stored matrices can also use a lot of RAM. It is a good idea to first get an estimate of how much RAM the model will need, before jumping in to the calculations. We can estimate the memory usage using the following function:

estimate_memory_initialization_MegaLMM(MegaLMM_state)
#> Loading required package: pryr
#> [1] "Random effects: Line"
#> [1] "16 groups of traits and 20 h2 grid cells"
#> [1] "Estimated initialized size: 0.01 B Gb"

Because this dataset is small and there is only 1 random effect, the memory requirements are low.

Pre-calculate useful matrices

Now we can run these preliminary calculations:

MegaLMM_state = initialize_MegaLMM(MegaLMM_state,verbose = T)
#> [1] "Pre-calculating random effect inverse matrices for 16 groups of traits and 20 sets of random effect weights"
#> 
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Prepare the Posterior database

As described above, the MegaLMM has many parameters, and we could store posterior samples of all parameters. But there’s not much use in storing large parameter arrays if we’re not actually interested in the values of those parameters.

Also, sometimes our interest is not really in any of the parameters, but instead in some function we can calculate from a set of parameters. For example, we’re interested in U, the additive genetic values, or Y the genetic values, but those are not parameters of our MegaLMM model. We could store all parameters and then calculated these predicted values at the end, but that would be a waste of space.

Instead, we can control which specific parameters are stored by the program.

By default, MegaLMM stores individual posterior samples of some parameters, and posterior means of others. You can see the list of defaults here:

These parameters have individual samples stores:

MegaLMM_state$Posterior$posteriorSample_params
#>  [1] "Lambda"       "U_F"          "F"            "delta"        "tot_F_prec"  
#>  [6] "F_h2"         "tot_Eta_prec" "resid_h2"     "B1"           "B2_F"        
#> [11] "B2_R"         "U_R"          "cis_effects"  "Lambda_m_eff" "Eta"

These parameters have only posterior means stores:

MegaLMM_state$Posterior$posteriorMean_params
#> [1] "Eta_mean"

Eta_mean is the internal parameter for the predicted phenotypic value Y.

In our case, many of these values are not useful, so I’ll re-specify these lists:

MegaLMM_state$Posterior$posteriorSample_params = c('Lambda','F_h2','resid_h2','tot_Eta_prec')
MegaLMM_state$Posterior$posteriorMean_params = 'Eta_mean'

But we also want to calculate the predicted genetic values. From the MegaLMM model, the predicted genetic values are the combination of the genetic component of Y_R (U_R), and the genetic component of F (U_F) rotated by the factor loadings:

U = U_F * Lambda + U_R

We can ask MegaLMM to calculate this value for us and save the posterior samples. I’ve also included code to calculate the genetic (G) and residual (R) covariances among environments, and the additive heritability of each environment because they might be interesting.

MegaLMM_state$Posterior$posteriorFunctions = list(
  U = 'U_F %*% Lambda + U_R',
  G = 't(Lambda) %*% diag(F_h2[1,]) %*% Lambda + diag(resid_h2[1,]/tot_Eta_prec[1,])',
  R = 't(Lambda) %*% diag(1-F_h2[1,]) %*% Lambda + diag((1-resid_h2[1,])/tot_Eta_prec[1,])',
  h2 = '(colSums(F_h2[1,]*Lambda^2)+resid_h2[1,]/tot_Eta_prec[1,])/(colSums(Lambda^2)+1/tot_Eta_prec[1,])'
  )

Now that we’ve decided which values to save, we initialize the posterior database:

MegaLMM_state = clear_Posterior(MegaLMM_state) 

As a final check, we should also assess how much memory the posterior samples will require.

We can estimate with the estimate_memory_posterior() function, giving it a number of iterations we plan to run in a single chunk (see below).

estimate_memory_posterior(MegaLMM_state,100)
#> [1] "Estimated posterior size for n_samples: 0.0040262 Gb"

Since we’re not saving any large matrices, the memory requirements will be low.

Run the MCMC and diagnose convergence

We’re finally ready to fit the model! Fitting the means running the Gibbs sampler. This is accomplished with the sample_MegaLMM() function, which takes a MegaLMM_state object and the number of iterations to run as arguments. We do run the chain in two stages: burnin and sampling.

Burnin

The burnin period is a period we wait until the chain comes to the stationary distribution. We can either wait a defined number of steps, or we can monitor convergence diagnostics, such as trace plots.

I prefer to use trace plots of the parameters that I am interested in. Yes it is not completely safe to declare stationarity until all parameters are stationary, but especially when we are only interested in the posterior mean of something like breeding values or genetic covariance, this seems to work well, and correlations across replicate runs is generally high.

While Gibbs samplers will eventually reach the stationary distribution, it is OK during the burnin phase to use some deliberate artificial jumps to push the chain into a location that likely has higher posterior mass. The one place that I’ve found this useful is in the order of the factors. Factor order is very sticky in the chain - it can take hundreds of iterations for any factor to switch. This means that factor order will never achieve a high effective sample size from this Gibbs sampler. However, I find that if I periodically check the observed importance of each factor during the burnin phase and then re-sort the factors, I achieve convergence of other parameters much more readily.

Therefore, my recommended manual burnin goes through a few rounds of:

  1. re-order the factors

  2. draw a set of new samples from the chain

  3. look at some trace plots.

  4. If they look good, clear the samples and start collecting real posterior samples

  5. If not, repeat again.

#> Warning in cor(F): the standard deviation is zero

#> Warning in cor(F): the standard deviation is zero

#> Warning in cor(F): the standard deviation is zero

#> Warning in cor(F): the standard deviation is zero

The function traceplot_array() saves a pdf booklet in the MegaLMM_state$run_ID directory. To see them, navigate to this directory in finder and look for Lambda.pdf and U.pdf

Collect posterior samples

If we think the model is reasonable converged to stationary, we can now collect posterior samples.

Since we’re not going to collect a lot of samples, and we’re not storing large matrices, we could do this in one run. But I’m still going to do it in a few chunks to demonstrate the save_posterior_chunk() function which saves the posterior samples to the database on disk, clears the posterior samples in memory, and continues sampling. We then load the samples we want back at the end.

n_iter = 250
for(i in 1:4) {
  print(sprintf('Sampling run %d',i))
  MegaLMM_state = sample_MegaLMM(MegaLMM_state,n_iter) 
  MegaLMM_state = save_posterior_chunk(MegaLMM_state)
  print(MegaLMM_state)
}
#> [1] "Sampling run 1"
#> 
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#> Time difference of 15.37253 secs
#> 
#>  Current iteration: 750, Posterior_samples: 125 
#>  Total time: 46.20289 secs 
#> 
#> [1] "Sampling run 2"
#> 
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#> Time difference of 15.616 secs
#> 
#>  Current iteration: 1000, Posterior_samples: 250 
#>  Total time: 1.030315 mins 
#> 
#> [1] "Sampling run 3"
#> 
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#> Time difference of 15.07514 secs
#> 
#>  Current iteration: 1250, Posterior_samples: 375 
#>  Total time: 1.281567 mins 
#> 
#> [1] "Sampling run 4"
#> 
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#> Time difference of 15.14122 secs
#> 
#>  Current iteration: 1500, Posterior_samples: 500 
#>  Total time: 1.533921 mins

Since our thinning rate is 2, and we run a total of 1000 sampling iterations, we end up with 500 posterior samples.

Calculate predicted values and other posterior statistics

While we’ve collected 500 posterior samples, if we actually look at the Posterior slot of MegaLMM_state, we’ll find the posterior is empty:

dim(MegaLMM_state$Posterior$Lambda)
#> [1]  0 15 19
dim(MegaLMM_state$Posterior$U)
#> [1]   0 502  19

This is because the save_posterior_chunk function saves the samples to the disk. The posterior database is in the folder: MegaLMM_fold_01/Posterior/*. To reload samples of a particular parameter, use:

Lambda_samples = load_posterior_param(MegaLMM_state,'Lambda')
U_samples = load_posterior_param(MegaLMM_state,'U')
dim(U_samples)
#> [1] 500 502  19

We can get posterior means with the get_posterior_mean() function:

U_hat = get_posterior_mean(U_samples)

U_hat is our predicted additive genetic value for every line in every trial.

We can also access the predicted total genetic value Eta_mean, which we stored as a posterior mean instead of as individual samples during the chain:

Eta_mean = load_posterior_param(MegaLMM_state,'Eta_mean')

Estimate Genomic Prediction accuracy

Let’s compare the accuracy of MegaLMM's predictions (U_hat or Eta_mean) to those of rrBLUP:

rrBLUP_accuracy = diag(cor(Y_testing,rrBLUP_predictions,use='p'))
MegaLMM_Uhat_accuracy = diag(cor(Y_testing,U_hat,use='p'))
MegaLMM_Eta_mean_accuracy = diag(cor(Y_testing,Eta_mean,use='p'))
plot(rrBLUP_accuracy,MegaLMM_Uhat_accuracy);abline(0,1)

plot(rrBLUP_accuracy,MegaLMM_Eta_mean_accuracy);abline(0,1)

We see that in most trials we gained considerable accuracy through the multi-trait modeling.

plot(MegaLMM_Uhat_accuracy,MegaLMM_Eta_mean_accuracy);abline(0,1)

We also see that because MegaLMM can also look at non-additive-genetic covariances among lines (i.e. residual correlations that are not explained by K but still must be genetic), we generally gained a bit of additional accuracy.

Additional package details

You can get a summary of the MCMC chain with the print and summary methods:

print(MegaLMM_state)
#> 
#>  Current iteration: 1500, Posterior_samples: 500 
#>  Total time: 1.533921 mins
summary(MegaLMM_state)
#>  Model dimensions: factors = 15, fixed = 2, regression_R = 0, regression_F = 0, random = 502 
#>   Current iteration: 1500, Posterior_samples: 500 
#>  Total time: 1.533921 mins

Working with the posterior samples

As I mentioned above, posterior samples can be saved to the disk like this:

MegaLMM_state = save_posterior_chunk(MegaLMM_state)

When you do this, you no longer have direct access to the samples you’ve collected inside the MegaLMM_state object. Instead, they are stored in the folder: [run_ID]/Posterior/ where [run_ID] is the name you gave to this model run above.

dim(MegaLMM_state$Posterior$Lambda)
#> [1]  0 15 19

To load all posterior samples of a particular parameter back into MegaLMM_state so that you can work with them, you can either call:

U = load_posterior_param(MegaLMM_state,'U')
dim(U)
#> [1] 500 502  19

or you can reload all samples of all stored parameers with:

MegaLMM_state$Posterior = reload_Posterior(MegaLMM_state)
dim(MegaLMM_state$Posterior$Lambda)
#> [1] 500  15  19
dim(MegaLMM_state$Posterior$F_h2)
#> [1] 500   1  15

As you can see above, we have collected 500 posterior samples. The samples for each parameter are stored as a 3-dimensional array. All parameters of the MegaLMM model are stored as 2-dimensional matrices. So MegaLMM_state$Posterior\$Lambda[1,,] will return the 1st posterior sample of the parameter Lambda, which has dimension \(15 \times 19\) in this model because K=15 and t=19. The parameter F_h2 stores the variance component proportions for the random effect Line for the 15 latent factors. There is only 1 random effect, so the dimension of this matrix is \(1 \times 15\).

To assess convergence of a parameter, it’s helpful to look at traceplots. You make a traceplot of a single parameter by extracting its chain and plotting it:

plot(U[,1,2],type='l')

But it’d take a lot to make this plot for every element of every matrix. As a shortcut, the function traceplot_array can make lots of traceplots for a matrix parameter:

traceplot_array(MegaLMM_state$Posterior$Lambda,facet_dim = 2,name = 'Lambda')

This will create a pdf booklet stored in the [run_ID] folder (note in the next update, this will be changed to directly use the file name provided). This will take the rows (facet_dim=2) or columns (facet_dim=3) of the provided parameter array and make a faceted plot, where within each facet a sampling of the values in that row/column will be selected (those with the largest posterior means) and traceplots will be made. Generally it is the largest values that are the most interesting, and will be most diagnostic of sampling issues.

Often we want to calculate summaries of the posterior samples. Two functions are provided:

U_hat = get_posterior_mean(U)
dim(U_hat)
#> [1] 502  19
U_HPD = get_posterior_HPDinterval(U,prob = 0.95)
dim(U_HPD)
#> [1]   2 502  19

The latter function will calculate lower and upper 0.95 Highest Posterior Density bounds for each element of the matrix U.

Finally, we can calculate functions of the parameters, as long as all are stored in the Posterior database. For example, we can calculate the phenotypic covariance matrix at each posterior sample like this:

P_samples = get_posterior_FUN(MegaLMM_state,t(Lambda) %*% Lambda + diag(1/tot_Eta_prec[1,]))
dim(P_samples)
#> [1] 500  19  19

Extracting random effect covariances

We’ve focused on predicting location effects of the random effects of line for each trait (yield in each environment). But we can also extract the estimates and posterior distributions on the key variance-covariance parameters \(\mathbf{G}\) and \(\mathbf{R}\). The model for the genetic covariance in MegaLMM is: \(\mathbf{G} = \mathbf{\Lambda^T \Sigma_{h^2_F} \Lambda} + \mathbf{\Psi \otimes \Sigma_{h^2_R}}\)

We can calculate this using the same syntax:

G_samples = get_posterior_FUN(MegaLMM_state,
              t(Lambda) %*% diag(F_h2[1,]) %*% Lambda + diag(resid_h2[,1]/tot_Eta_prec[1,])
            )
dim(G_samples)
#> [1] 500  19  19

But, if you look back, we actually defined this as one of the posterior_functions we specifed in the beginning, so it’s actually already calculated for us, and we can just load the samples of this matrix directly:

G_samples = load_posterior_param(MegaLMM_state,'G')
R_samples = load_posterior_param(MegaLMM_state,'R')
dim(G_samples)
#> [1] 500  19  19
dim(R_samples)
#> [1] 500  19  19

Extending the chain

If you look at your posterior samples and decide that the model hasn’t really converged, you can treat the current chain as an extended burnin and re-start the collection of posterior samples. I won’t run the code here so we don’t lose our current samples!

#MegaLMM_state2 = clear_Posterior(MegaLMM_state)
#print(MegaLMM_state2)

You’ll see the Posterior_samples value has been set to 0.

Saving the model object

Our current model object is not that big, and so you can save it directly:

saveRDS(MegaLMM_state,file = 'MegaLMM_state_run_01.rds')

And then come back and reload it and go:

MegaLMM_state = readRDS('MegaLMM_state_run_01.rds')
print(MegaLMM_state)
#> 
#>  Current iteration: 1500, Posterior_samples: 500 
#>  Total time: 1.533921 mins

However, to re-start the sampling, all you actually need is the initialized MegaLMM_state object and a stored current_state slot. This slot is a list with the current state of all parameters as well as the random number generator. This gets automatically saved in the [run_ID] directory, so you can re-run the setup_model_MegaLMM() function, add priors, initialize, etc, and then reload the current_state and resume the chain where you left off:

MegaLMM_state$current_state = readRDS('MegaLMM_fold_01/current_state.rds')

Convergence issues

You may have noticed in some diagnostics that parameters of Lambda do seem to be drifting a lot, suggesting that the chain has not converged. This suggests you should probably run this model much longer. That is probably true. However, in my experience, posterior distributions of location effects like U do not change much with much longer chains - what’s happening is that the magnitude of values of Lambda and the magnitude of corresponding columns of F are not identified in the likelihood, because the true term in the model is F * Lambda. So there’s a lot of drift (poor mixing) in the magnitudes of those parameters, ever if their product is mixing well. Also, the order of columns of F (and rows of Lambda) is not identified in the likelihood. The prior does provide a fairly clear ordering, but it’s still not unusual to have factors switch order. When this happens, Lambda[1,3] may take on the previous identity of Lambda[2,3] and so traceplots of Lambda[1,3] will not look good (or posterior means of this parameter. Therefore, I advise caution interpreting Lambda.